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Evolution of Internet in China, Papers

The diffusion of the Internet in China

https://arizona.aws.openrepository.com/handle/10150/289812

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This dissertation examines how the Internet spread across China from the late 1990s into the early 2000s, during a period of explosive growth. Between 1999 and 2001, the number of Chinese Internet users jumped from 8.9 million to 22 million, making China one of the fastest-growing online populations in the world .

Using the Global Diffusion of the Internet (GDI) framework, the study analyzes six key dimensions of Internet adoption: pervasiveness, geographic dispersion, sectoral absorption, connectivity infrastructure, organizational infrastructure, and sophistication of use.

Key findings:

  • Government policy was the central driver. In 1996, China chose “state-coordinated competition,” allowing multiple state-owned entities to operate backbone networks instead of a single monopoly. This strategy accelerated infrastructure development while keeping control centralized.
  • Infrastructure grew rapidly, with world-class backbone networks and broad national coverage by the late 1990s.
  • Commercial and government use expanded quickly, with nearly all government agencies and most large businesses establishing websites, though many remained basic “brochureware” rather than interactive platforms.
  • Security and regulation were tightly controlled, with restrictions on content, censorship of sensitive topics, and prosecutions of online dissenters, highlighting the balance between growth and state control.
  • E-commerce adoption lagged behind infrastructure development. Many firms had not yet restructured their business models to fully leverage the Internet.
  • Provincial case study: Guangdong was one of the earliest and most advanced provinces, benefiting from its ties to Hong Kong and foreign investment.

The dissertation concludes that China’s Internet expansion was shaped by a mix of government coordination, rapid infrastructure investment, and selective openness, producing a unique pattern of growth compared with other nations. It highlights both the opportunities for modernization and the challenges posed by censorship, regulation, and uneven business adaptation

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BREAKING: Apache Stronghold asks Supreme Court to save Oak Flat

WASHINGTON – A coalition of Western Apaches, other Native peoples, and non-Native allies asked the Supreme Court today to protect their sacred site at Oak Flat from destruction by a multinational mining giant. In Apache Stronghold v. United States, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals refused to stop the federal government from transferring Oak Flat to Resolution Copper, a foreign-owned mining company that plans to turn the site into a massive mining crater, ending Apache religious practices forever (Watch this short video to learn more). The Apaches and their allies hosted a day of prayer outside the Court as they asked the Justices to save the spiritual lifeblood of their people.

Since time immemorial, Western Apaches and other Native peoples have gathered at Oak Flat, outside of present-day Superior, Arizona, for sacred religious ceremonies that cannot take place anywhere else. Known in Apache as Chi’chil Biłdagoteel, Oak Flat is listed in the National Register of Historic Places and has been protected from mining and other harmful practices for decades. These protections were targeted in December 2014 when a last-minute provision was inserted into a must-pass defense bill authorizing the transfer of Oak Flat to the Resolution Copper company. Resolution Copper is a foreign-owned mining company that plans to turn the sacred site into a two-mile-wide and 1,100-foot-deep crater. The majority owner of Resolution Copper, Rio Tinto, sparked international outrage when it deliberately destroyed 46,000-year-old Indigenous rock shelters at one of Australia’s most significant cultural sites.

“Oak Flat is our Mt. Sinai—the most sacred place where generations of Apache have come to connect with our Creator, our faith, and our land,” said Dr. Wendsler Nosie Sr. of Apache Stronghold. “We pray the Justices will protect Oak Flat and ensure that our place of worship is not treated differently simply because it lacks four walls and a steeple.”

Apache Stronghold—a coalition of Apaches, other Native peoples, and non-Native allies—filed this lawsuit in January 2021 seeking to halt the proposed mine at Oak Flat. The mine is opposed by 21 of 22 federally recognized tribal nations in Arizona and by the National Congress of American Indians. Meanwhile, national polling indicates that 74% of Americans support protecting Oak Flat. The Ninth Circuit ruled earlier this year that the land transfer is not subject to federal laws protecting religious freedom. But five judges dissented, writing that the court “tragically err[ed]” by refusing to protect Oak Flat. After unsuccessfully asking all 29 judges on the Ninth Circuit to rehear the case, Apache Stronghold has filed their appeal to the Supreme Court.

“Blasting the birthplace of Apache religion into oblivion would be an egregious violation of our nation’s promise of religious freedom for people of all faiths,” said Luke Goodrich, vice president and senior counsel at Becket. “The Court should uphold its strong record of defending religious freedom by ensuring that the Apaches can continue worshiping at Oak Flat as they have for centuries.”

In addition to Becket, Apache Stronghold is represented by Erin Murphy of Clement & Murphy PLLC, Professor Stephanie Barclay of Georgetown Law School, and attorneys Michael V. Nixon and Clifford Levenson.

For more information or to arrange an interview, contact Ryan Colby at media@becketlaw.org or 202-349-7219.

Reposted from Becket Law

Papers

Whitepaper on US-China Cyber-Relations

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This white paper draws on Professor Will Foster’s 19 years of experience studying US-China cyber-relations and is a post-modern attempt to bring new perspectives to the very limited analysis found in press coverage on “Chinese hacking of America.” Professor Foster combines glosses on these stories, provides some lessons he has learned from studying US-China Cyber-Relations, and provides a number of potential scenarios all with the goal of increasing communication and understanding between two very powerful and once distant civilizations that are now inter-connected at the speed of light. About the Author: Professor Foster has been at the intersection of government, industry, and academia for 30 years. He earned his PhD from University of Arizona in Management Information Systems and East Asian Studies. His dissertation on the Diffusion of the Internet in China was published by CISAC at Stanford in 2001. He has authored over 50 articles on US-China cyber-relations. Between 1995-2001, he was the International Policy Editor for the CIX—the world’s first Internet Service Provider Trade Association. Professor Foster started his career designing organizational networks for the US Congress, the White House and over 20 Federal Agencies as well as global companies like GE.

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